PESTLE Analysis of Sweden

PESTLE Analysis of Sweden Sweden, which occupies the eastern part of the Scandinavian Peninsula, is the fourth-largest country in Europe and is one-tenth larger than California. The country slopes eastward and southward from the Kjà ³len Mountains along the Norwegian border, where the peak elevation is Kebnekaise at 6,965 ft (2,123 m) in Lapland. In the north are mountains and many lakes. To the south and east are central lowlands and south of them are fertile areas of forest, valley, and plain. Along Swedens rocky coast, chopped up by bays and inlets, are many islands, the largest of which are Gotland and Oland. This country is having the area of 449964 sq km slightly larger than California. STOCKHOLM is the capital.They are having the Constitutional monarchy type of government and also have parliamentary democracy. PESTEL ANALYSIS OF THE SWEDEN: As in this country the government is having the constitutional monarchy and has parliamentary democracy. In the economy of the there is a big swap after 1991. This economy is enriched by the sources of the timer, hydropower and iron ore. POLITICAL ANALYSIS: Ordinary general elections to the Swedish Parliament are held every fourth year on the third Sunday in September. County council and municipal council elections take place at the same time. A party must receive at least 4% of the votes in the entire country or 12% in a single electoral district to qualify for any seats in Parliament.Sweden is a constitutional monarchy in which King Karl XVI Gustaf is main head of the state. Sweden is the unitary state currently divided into the 21 countries.Each country has a country administrative board, which is a government appointed board. Its led by a governor appointed for period of six years. The main responsibilities of the County Administrative Board are to coordinate the development of the county in line with goals set in national politics. In each county there is also a County Council or landsting which is a policy-making assembly elected by the residents of the county. Constitutionally, the 349-member Riksdag (Parliament) holds supreme authority in modern Sweden. The Riksdag is responsible for choosing the prime minister, who then appoints the government (the ministers). The legislative power is only exercised by the Riksdag. Legislation may be initiated by the cabinet or by members of Parliament. Members are elected on the basis of proportional representation for a four-year term. The Constitution of Sweden can be altered by the Riksdag, which requires a simple but absolute majority and two decisions with general elections in between. Sweden has three other constitutional laws: The Act of Royal Succession, The Freedom of Press Act and The Fundamental Law on Freedom of Expression. ECONOMIC ANALYSIS: GDP (2010 est., nominal): $438.8 billion. GDP (2010 est., per capita purchasing power parity): $37,032. GNI (2009, per capita purchasing power parity): $38,560. Annual GDP growth rate (2010 est.): 4.5%. Exchange rate (September 2010): Swedish kronor (SEK) per U.S. dollar = 7.073. Exchange rate (January-September 2010 avg.): Swedish kronor (SEK) per U.S. dollar = 7.3475. Inflation rate (2010 est.): 1.4%. Natural resources: Forests, hydroelectric power, iron ore, copper, lead, zinc, gold, silver, tungsten, uranium, arsenic, feldspar, timber. Industry (2010): Approximately 26.6% of GDP. TYPES: machinery/metal products (iron and steel), electrical equipment, aircraft, paper products, precision equipment (bearings, radio and telephone parts, armaments), wood pulp and paper products, processed foods. Services (2010): Approximately 71.8% of GDP. Typestelecommunications, computer equipment, biotech. Trade: Exports (2010)SEK 728.2 billion (U.S. $102.9 billion). Major trading partners, exports (2010)-Germany, Norway, U.K., U.S., Denmark, Finland, France, Netherlands, China. Imports (2010)SEK 687.6 billion (U.S. $97.2 billion). Typesmachinery and transport equipment, 41.8%; food, clothing, textiles and furniture, 19.6%; mineral fuels and electric current, 13.5%; chemicals and rubber products, 12.8%; minerals, 9.2%; wood and paper products, 3.1%. Major trading partners, imports (2010)- Germany, Norway, Denmark, Netherlands, U.K., Finland, Russia, France, Belgium, China. The typical worker receives 40% of his income after the tax wedge. The slowly declining overall taxation, 51.1% of GDP in 2007, is still nearly double of that in the United States or Ireland. The share of employment financed via tax income amounts to a third of Swedish workforce, a substantially higher proportion than in most other countries. REAL GDP GROWTH IN SWEDEN IN BETWEEN 1996-2006 SOCIAL ANALYSIS: Sweden has one of the most highly developed welfare states in the world. The country has a higher level of social spending to GDP than any other nation. Additionally it provides equal as well as comprehensive access to education and health care. Sweden provided solid support for free trade (except agriculture) and mostly relatively strong and stable property rights (both private and public), though some economists have pointed out that Sweden promoted industries with tariffs and used publicly subsidized RD during the countrys early critical years of industrialization. From the 1970s and onwards Swedens GDP growth fell behind other industrialized countries and the countrys per capita ranking fell from the 4th to 14th place in a few decades. Sweden adopted neo-liberal agricultural policies in 1990. Since the 1930s, the agricultural sector had been subject to price controls. In June 1990, the Parliament voted for a new agricultural policy marking a significant shift away from price controls. As a result, food prices fell somewhat. However, the liberalizations soon became moot because EU agricultural controls supervened. As of 2007, total tax revenue was 47.8% of GDP, the second highest tax burden among developed countries, down from 49.1% 2006. Swedens inverted tax wedge the amount going to the service workers wallet is approximately 15% compared to 10% in Belgium, 30% in Ireland, and 50% in United States. Public sector spending amounts to 53% of the GDP. State and municipal employees total around a third of the workforce, much more than in most Western countries. Only Denmark has a larger public sector (38% of Danish workforce). Spending on transfers is also high. TECHNOLOGICAL ANALYSIS: The traditional engineering industry is still a major source of Swedish inventions, but pharmaceuticals, electronics and other high-tech industries are gaining ground. Tetra was an invention for storing liquid foods, invented by Erik Wallenberg. Losec, an ulcer medicine, was the worlds best-selling drug in the 1990s and was developed by AstraZeneca. More recently Hakan Lans invented the Automatic Identification System, a worldwide standard for shipping and civil aviation navigation. Swedish inventors hold a total of 33,523 patents in the United States as of 2007, according to the United States Patent and Trademark Office. As a nation, only ten other countries hold more patents than Sweden. In 1991 the government announced it would begin taking applications from private television companies wishing to broadcast on the terrestrial network. TV4, which had previously been broadcasting via satellite, was granted a permit and began its terrestrial broadcasts in 1992, becoming the first private channel to broadcast television content from within the country. Around half the populations are connected to cable television. Digital terrestrial television started in 1999 and the last analogue terrestrial broadcasts were terminated in 2007. Swedens energy is largely privatized. The Nordic energy market is one of the first liberalized energy markets in Europe. The traditional engineering industry is still a major source of Swedish inventions, but pharmaceuticals, electronics and other high-tech industries are gaining ground. Tetra Pak was an invention for storing liquid foods, invented by Erik Wallenberg. Losec, an ulcer medicine, was the worlds best-selling drug in the 1990s and was developed by AstraZeneca. More recently Hakan Lans invented the Automatic Identification System, a worldwide standard for shipping and civil aviation navigation. A large portion of the Swedish economy is to this day based on the export of technical inventions, and many large multinational corporations from Sweden have their origins in the ingenuity of Swedish inventors. LEGAL ANALYSIS: The supreme court of Sweden is the last step for all civil and criminal cases. The Supreme Court consist of 16 councilors of justice which were appointed by government, but the court as an institution is independent and the government cannot interfere in the decisions of the court. The Swedish police service is government agency concerned with police matters. All the matters are solved by the national police as there is municipal police. The entire police is under national government from 1 January 1965. Here courts are divided in 2 parallel courts General court-for criminal and civil case General administrative court-for administrative cases. Mainly the justices for these courts are appointed by government. ENVIRONMENTAL ANALYSIS: Environmental protection laws: These are mainly upgraded to have control over the environment from different factors. Disposal of wastes in a proper and specified manner. SOURCES OR POTENTIAL SOURCES OF COMPETITIVE ADVANTAGE FOR SWEDEN BY USING PORTER DIAMOND MODEL: The potential sources are related with the competitive advantage for the various countries in the world. Porter diamond model (1990) shows direct relation of the growth of the different economies of the world. POTERS DIAMOND- THE DETERMINANTS OF THE NATIONAL ADVANTAGE: As the market in Sweden is growing at a stagnant growth. The economy is fastly growing in technical sector such as in computer equipments, biotech and telecommunications. Using the porters model the potential of Sweden can be analyzed not only separately but in combined form also. As the different countries have their combined technology with the Sweden to create the better form of product and services. As the incomes from these sources are up to the 71%of the total income. As the country started growing in the era of 1990s. Porter model shows us that how various nation grow up in the various clusters of the various industries and developing the different work groups which develops the country. Sweden has developed the potential sources of the telecomm and various sectors so as to increase the income and growth rate of the country. CONCLUSION: From this we conclude that the country is growing at a faster rate. The country is having the dynamic growth in the field of the telecom and the computer sector. As the net income is increasing at the higher rate and they are many businesses at the better rate. ANALYSIS OF THE PESTLE MODEL: As we have seen in PESTEL analysis of SWEDEN that how all the factors are closely related to the country .In start Sweden was not so grown country but after that government played a very important role in growth of Sweden and Foreign Direct Investment gave a big booster to sweden due to it Sweden started to use technology and it has become labor-intense economy from Agriculture economy. GDP of Sweden is also growing with a rapid speed and is near about 9%, inflation rate is very low 1.50% which is plus point for Sweden. Per capita income is also $ 16423 per annum because of it the standard of living of people has increased and people are living a luxurious life and If we talk about the social welfare so Swedens govt. is very helpful in social welfare, it is running many social welfare programs. For providing all these facilities every country need good Govt. Revenue so Sweden has a very strong taxation policy thats why Sweden easily raises funds and then it provides all the facilities to people, Education level of people has also increased and now people have become more literate. If we talk about legal and environmental factors then we can say that the production level of Sweden has increased thats why the energy consumption level has also increased so to make a balance in environment Sweden govt. has some rules and regulation which are helpful for Environment these rules.

Role Of Metal Ions In Biochemistr

Role Of Metal Ions In Biochemistr A metal is a chemical element that is a good conductor of both electricity and heat and forms cations and ionic bonds with non-metals. In chemistry, ametal (from Greek ÃŽÂ ¼ÃƒÅ½Ã‚ ­Ãƒ Ã¢â‚¬Å¾ÃƒÅ½Ã‚ ±ÃƒÅ½Ã‚ »ÃƒÅ½Ã‚ »ÃƒÅ½Ã‚ ¿ÃƒÅ½Ã‚ ½ mà ©tallon, mine]) is an element, compound, or alloy characterized by high electrical conductivity. In a metal, atoms readily lose electrons to form positive ions (cations). Those ions are surrounded by delocalized electrons, which are responsible for the conductivity. The solid thus produced is held by electrostatic interactions between the ions and the electron cloud, which are called metallic bonds.[2] Metal ions play essential roles in about one third ofenzymes . These ions can modify electron flow I a substrate or enzyme, thus effectively controlling an enzyme-catalyzed reaction. They can serve to bind and orient substrate with respect to functional groups in the active site, and they can provide a site for redox activity if the metal has several valence states. Without the appropriate metal ion, a biochemical reaction catalyzed by a particular metalloenzyme would proceed very slowly, if at all. The enzyme provides an arrangement of sidechain functional groups having an appropriate sized hole with the preferred groups on enzyme side chains needed to bind the required metal ion. The optimal number of such binding groups is chosen for the particular metal ion, together with the appropriate hydrophobic or hydrophilic environment in the binding site. Metal ions may be bound by main-chain amino and carbonyl groups, but specific binding is achieved by the amino acid side chains, particularly the carboxylate groups of aspartic and glutamic acid, and the ring nitrogen atom of histidine. Other side chains that bind metals ions include tryptophan (ring nitrogen), cysteine (thiol), methionine (thioether), serine, threonine, tyrosine (hydroxyl groups), and asparagine and glutamine (carbonyl groups, less often amino group . No set of general rules exists that describes how a given metal ion will behave in an enzyme . Now that many crystal structures of proteins are being studied by X-ray diffraction, information on the binding of metal ions in the active sites of enzymes is available and should provide clues to the mechanism of action of the enzyme.The examples of catechol methyltransferase andmandelate racemase will be discussed later in this article.The work described here includes results fromexaminations of the crystal structures in the CambridgeStructural Database and the Protein Databank . Astudy of binding, however, also involves an analysis ofthe energetic consequences of changing the way thebinding occurs, so that the most stable binding pattern fora given group of ligands can be deduced. We haveapproached this using ab initio molecular orbital and density functional calculations . In this way weobtain both the binding geometry of ligands and theenergetic consequences of changing this binding m ode. Properties of metal ions Metal ions are generally positively charged and act as electrophiles, seeking the possibility of sharing electron pairs with other atoms so that a bond or charge-charge interaction can be formed. They behave rather like hydrogen ions (the poor mans metal). Metal ions, however, often have positive charges greater than one,and have a larger ionic volume so that they can accommodate many ligands around them at the same time. In addition, metal ion concentrations can be high atneutral pH values, while hydrogen ion concentrations are, by the definition of pH, low at these values. Ligands are the atoms or groups of atoms that are bonded to the metal ion, generally in an electrostatic manner. They are usually neutral or negatively charged and they donate electron density to the metal ion. Thecoordination number of a metal ion, that is, the number of ligand atoms bound to it, is viewed in terms of concentric spheres; the inner sphere containing those atoms in contact with the metal ion, the second sphere containing those in contact with the inner sphere ligand atoms. The number of atoms in these spheres will depend on the size of the metal ion and the sizes of the ligand atoms. For example, sodium is smaller than potassium, and sulfur is larger than oxygen. Measurements of metal ion-liganddistances in crystal structures led to the idea of atomic and ionic radii [9-11]; anion radii can also be derived from the minimum anion-anion distances in crystal structures. The radius ratio, a concept introduced by Goldschmidt [11], is the ratio of the radius of the cation to that of the anion and is generally less than 1.0 Tetrahedral structures have a radius ratio between 0.225 and 0.414, while octahedral structures have a ratio between 0.414 and 0.645. For example, the radius of Mg2+ is 0.65 D, while that of O2- is 1.40 D and their radius ratio is 0.464; the packing is octahedral. The charge distribution in the active site of an enzyme is designed to stabilize the transition state of the catalyzed reaction relative to that of the substrate. In enzyme-catalyzed reactions it is essential that the reactants be brought together with the correct spatial orientation, otherwise the chance of the reaction taking place is diminished and the reaction rate will be too low.The electrostatic environment in the active site is a major factor that serves to guide the substrate to the binding site in the correct orientation. Metal ions can assist in this process, often binding groups in a stereochemically rigid manner, thereby helping to control the action of the enzyme. Thus, an enzyme will bind its substrate in such a manner that immobilization and alignment, ready formation of the transition state of the reaction to be catalyzed,and then easy release of the product will result; metal ions often help in accomplishing this process. Each metal ion has its own chemistry. An example of the differing reactivities of metal cations is provided by their ability to bind or lose water molecules. The exchange of coordinated water with bulk solvent by various cations has been categorized into four groups: those for which the exchange rate is greater than 108 per second including alkali and alkaline earth metal ions(except beryllium and magnesium), together with Cr3+,Cu2+, Cd2+, and Hg2+. Intermediate rate constants (from 104 to 108 per second) are found for Mg2+ and some of the divalent first-row transition metal ions. Those with slow rate constants (from 1 to 104 per second) include Be2+ and certain trivalent first-row transition metal ions. The inert group with rates from 10-6 to 10-2 per second containsCr3+, Co3+, Rh3+, Ir3+, and Pt2+. One of the factors involved in rates of exchange is the charge-to-radius Ratio; if this ratio is high the exchange rate is low.An important reaction catalyzed by metal ions inenzymes is the ionization of water to give a hydrated hydrogen ion and a hydroxyl anion. Initial studies of this process will be discussed here as they are relevant to the action of a metal ion in providing a hydroxyl group and a hydrogen ion for use in an enzymatic reaction. Polarizing Potential of Various Ions Atoms or groups of atoms are considered polarizable if, when they are placed in an electric field, a charge separation occurs and a dipole is acquired. This deformability or polarizability is measured by the ratio of the induced dipole to the applied field. Those atoms that hold on less firmly to their electrons are termed more polarizable. It is found that if two ions have the same inert gas structure (potassium and chloride, for example), the negatively charged anion is more polarizable than the positively charged cation, which holds on to its electrons more tightly. The word hard has been introduced to indicate a low polarizability so that the electron cloud is difficult to deform (like a hard sphere). By contrast soft means high polarizability so that the electron cloud is readily deformed . A hard acid or metal cation holds tightly to its electrons and therefore its electron cloud is not readily distorted; its unshared valence electrons are not easily excited. Soft (polarizable) metal cations contain electrons that are not so tightly held and therefore are easily distorted or removed. A hard acid prefers tocombine with a hard base, while a soft acid prefers to bind with a soft base by partially forming covalent bonds .The type of binding is related to the highest occupied molecular orbital (HOMO) of the electron-pair donor (a lewis base, the ligand) and the lowest unoccupied molecular orbital (LUMO) of the electron-pair acceptor (a Lewis acid, the metal ion). If these have similar energies, then electron transfer will give a covalent (soft) interaction, whereas the energy difference is large, electron transfer does not readily take place and the interaction is mainly electrostatic (hard-hard). Hardcations include the alkali and alkaline earth metal ions while soft metal ions include Cu 2+, Hg2 2+, Hg2+, Pd2+. Inbiological systems, hard ligands generally contain oxygen while soft ligands contain sulfur. Hard acids tend to bind hard bases by ionic forces, while soft acids bind soft bases by partially forming covalent bonds. These hard-soft categorizations are a help in understanding the relative binding preferences of various cations. Most metal ions of biological significance are hard or intermediate between hard and soft. Most soft metal ions and soft ligands are poisonous and they interact with other soft species in the body. For Pb2+ the harder ligands are found in hemidirected structures and the softer ligands in holodirected complexes.Nature has devised many enzyme systems in which a metal ion interacts with the oxygen of a water molecule.If a water molecule can be dissociated into a hydrogen ion and a hydroxyl group, the latter can serve as a nucleophile in chemical a nd biochemical reactions.Nature has chosen activation of a water molecule as a means to obtain such a nucleophile in situation so that a chemical reaction can occur in a stereochemically controlled manner in the active site of the enzyme. The questions we ask are as follows: 1) how does nature ensure that the specific water molecule will be activated; 2) how does nature compensate for the lower water activation power of some cations over others (since a wide variety of metal ions may not be available in the particular active site and the enzyme has to do the best it can with what is available); and 3) how does nature ensure that the required reaction occurs. Ab initio molecular orbital and density functional calculations have been carried out to measure the extent to which a series of metal cations can, on binding with water, cause it to be dissociated into its component hydrogen ions (subsequently hydrated in solution) and hydroxyl ions. Initial data indicate that the charge of the metal ion plays a significant role in modifying the pKa of water. The binding enthalpies of a wide variety of metal ion monohydrates, M[H2O]2+ , have been published [21] but their deprotonation enthalpies are still under investigation. Geometry of Metal-Ion Binding to Functional Groups The geometries of metal ion-carboxylate interactions have been studied in order to determine the following: 1)which lone pair of an oxygen atom in a carboxylate group, syn or anti, is preferred for metal cation binding; 2) does the metal ion lie in the plane of the carboxylgroup; and 3) under what conditions do metal ions share both oxygen atoms of the carboxylate group equally? We found that cations generally lie in the plane of the carboxylate group . The exceptions to this mainly include the alkali metal cations and some alkaline earth cations; these metals ionize readily and form strong bases so it is not surprising that they have less specific binding modes. When the distance of the metal cation to the carboxylate oxygen atoms is on the order of 2.3-2.6 D, the metal ion tends to share both oxygen atoms equally. Otherwise one oxygen atom of the carboxylate group is bound to the metal ion and the other is not. Calcium ions often form bidentate interactions, while it is less common for the smaller magnesium ions. Imidazole groups in histidyl side chains of proteins bind metal ions in a variety of enzymes. One imidazole can, by virtue of its two nitrogen atoms, bind one or two metal ions, depending on its ionization state and the suitabilities of the metal ion. The bases in DNA can also bind metal ions. We have analyzed hydrogen bonding to and from nitrogen atoms in nitrogen-containing heterocycles for crystal structures in the Cambridge Structural Database. It was found that for hydrogen bonding, a slight out-of-plane deviation of the binding atom often occurs. Metal ions bind more rigidly in the plane of the imidazole group. The energetic cost of such deviations were analyzed by ab initio molecular orbital calculations. In an investigation of protein crystal structures in the Protein Databank it was found that the binding of metal ions to histidine in proteins is more rigid and the location of the metal ion is more directional. Thus, if an enzyme needs to control the location and orientation of a carboxylate or imidazole group, it can accomplish this better with a metal ion than by hydrogen bonding. Metal ions in proteins are often involved in structural motifs. When a metalloenzyme carries out its catalytic function it uses one of a few possible three-dimensional arrangements of functional groups around the metal ion to ensure the specificity of the required biochemical reaction. Thus, if such catalytic metal-binding motifs can be identified and categorized, then incipient reactivities of enzymes could be inferred from their three-dimensional structures. Such a categorization, however, requires an understanding of the underlying chemistry of any metal ion in the active site. One motif identified in the crystal structure of cobalt(II) formate consists of a carboxyl group in which one oxygen atom is bound to the metal ion and the other is bound to metal-bound water, to give a cyclic structure. This motif has been found in many metalloenzyme crystal structure , such as D-xylose isomerase . The roles of these motifs are of interest. The metal ion-hydrated-carboxylate motif (I) is planar and commonly found. It does not, however, affect the ability of the metal ion (in studies of Mg2+ complexes) to ionize water. On the other hand, for magnesium ions (which generally have a rigid octahedral arrangement of binding groups) it utilizes 2 of the 6 coordination positions and therefore serves to orient the arrangement of ligands, an effect we have labeled coordination clamping. Motif (II) is also found in several crystal structures such as that of the -subunit of integrin CR3 . It appears to help bind subunits together. A third motif (III) is found in D-xylose isomerase and involves two metal ions with several carboxylate ligands and a histidine ligand . The metal site that binds only oxygen atoms can bind substrate in place of the two water molecules and orient the substrate. The second metal ion site (with histidine as one ligand) then positions a metal ion-bound water molecule to attack the substrate. Roles of Metal Ions in Enzyme Action The crystal structure of mandelate racemase with bound p-iodomandelate provides a useful example of the importance of a metal ion in a reaction . The enzyme binds a magnesium ion by means of three carboxyl groups. The substrate mandelate has displaced water from the magnesium coordination sphere and binds by means of its carboxylate group and an a-hydroxy group.The magnesium ion will lie in the plane of the carboxyl group, as shown by our studies of metal ion-carboxylate interactions . The magnesium holds the substrate firmly in place so that the catalytic abstraction and addition of a hydrogen atom by His 297 or Lys 166 is precisely effected . The magnesium probably also aids this activity by affecting the electronic flow in the carboxylate and hydroxyl groups by mild polarization. We have found that metal ion coordination is better than a hydrogen bond in aligning a functional group; there is considerable flexibility in a hydrogen bond as we found for imidazoles . In the reaction c atalyzed by the enzyme mandelate racemase the magnesium ion binds substrate . A Histidine (His 297) and Lysine (Lys 168) are positioned to abstract a hydrogen ion from the substrate and, if it is added again from the other side, racemization occurs. Hydrogen bonding to a carboxylate group of the substrate helps to stabilize an enolate intermediate in the reaction. In catechol O-methyltransferase , a methyl group is transferred from the sulfur of Sadenosy[ methionine to catechol. The magnesium ion is oriented by a motif of type I and it binds substrate in such an orientation that a hydroxyl group is near the S-CH3 group, and the other hydroxyl group is held in place by a carboxylate group. There are many other examples of two-metal ion active sites, such as hemerythrin, alkaline phosphatase and superoxide dismutases (which have been well documented). These studies of the geometries and energetics of metal-ion ligand b inding can therefore aid in our understanding of metalloenzyme function Metals in the RNA worid By combining our limited knowledge of metal-ion-binding to contemporary RNAs and our more extensive knowledge of metal-ion-binding to proteins, it is possible to speculate on the role of metal ions in prebiotic molecular evolution. It seems clear that specifically bound metal ions coevolved with RNA molecules. Many of the mononuclear sites in Table 5 are formed with, or can be engineered into, small RNA fragments. Since such sites are highly hydrated and contain limited direct contact with the RNA, the observed affinities are only moderate, in the 1-1000 ÃŽÂ ¼M range. These sites are also expected to show limited specificity, predominantly dictated by the chemical nature of the ligands. Furthermore, in these examples, the RNA structures themselves are likely to be quite flexible and can accommodate a variety of metal ions with only minor distortions to the overall RNA fold. These minimalist sites are sufficient to stabilize the secondary and tertiary structures observed in these motifs. The metal ion sites generated on small RNAs appear to be capable of facilitating a variety of different types of chemistry. Activities range from the transesterification and hydrolytic reactions of small ribozymes (Pyle 1996; Sigurdsson et al. 1998) to the more exotic porphyrin metalation (Conn et al. 1996) and Diels-Alder condensation reactions (Tarasow et al. 1997) catalyzed by aptamers produced from in vitro selection experiments.These small RNAs have only limited amounts of structure and therefore are likely to position the catalytic metal ions by only a few points of contact. The relatively modest rate enhancements supported by catalytic RNAs such as these probably reflect the types of species that first evolved from random polymerization events. Very active metal ions might have assisted in this process but would have increased the danger of side reactions that would accidentally damage the catalyst. A striking difference between most RNA metal-binding sites studied thus far and those seen in proteins is the degree of hydration. Both structural and catalytic metal-ion-binding sites in proteins are predominantly dehydrated (Lippard and Berg 1995). Water molecules occasionally appear in the coordination spheres of these metal ions, but in these cases, they are often believed either to be displaced by the substrate when it enters the active site or to take part in the catalytic mechanism of the enzyme. Such protein sites also bind their metal ions much more tightly than the RNA systems. In fact, tight binding is a requirement for dehydrated sites, since there is a characteristic energy (ÄHhyd) associated with the hydration of any ion. The net binding energy upon coordination of the ion must account for the energetic cost of dehydration. The question arises, Why are such dehydrated sites not observed in RNAs? One possibility is that metal-binding sites in RNAs are intrinsically different from those in proteins. RNA has a much more limited set of ligands to use in generating a specific metal-binding pocket. Amino acid side chains containing thiols and thioethers are well suited to binding a variety of softer metals. In addition, the carboxylate side chains provide anionic ligands with great versatility in their potential modes of coordination. They can act as either terminal or bridging ligands and bind in either monodentate or bidentate geometries. The nucleotides, on the other hand, are much larger and more rigid than the corresponding amino acids. The anionic ligand in RNA, the nonbridging phosphate oxygen, is an integral component of the backbone and therefore is more limited in its conformational freedom than the aspartate and glutamate carboxylate groups. The heterocyclic ring nitrogens and the keto oxygens from the bases are held in rigidly planar orientations by the aromatic rings. This geometric constraint severely limits the ability of an RNA to compact encompass a metal ion and provide more than facial coordination and therefore complete dehydration. It also explains why the most specific metal-binding sites are not in the Watson-Crick base-paired regions of the structure where the conformation is too constrained. Instead, metalion- binding sites are clustered in regions of extensive distortion from the A-form RNA helices. There is also the question of the folding of RNAs relative to that of proteins. It is possible that in RNAs there is insufficient energy in the folding and metal-binding process to completely displace the waters of hydration around a metal ion. It has been suggested that in contemporary RNAs, modified nucleotides might be present to assist in metal ion binding (Agris 1996). A more straightforward possibility, however, is that most RNAs studied to date are structurally too simple. In these RNAs, most residues involved in metal ion binding are solvent-exposed. Thus, the RNAs have no real inside comparable to the hydrophobic core of a protein. The largest RNA crystallographically characterized to date is the P4-P6 domain. On the basis of that structure, it was proposed that an ionic core may substitute in RNA folding for the hydrophobic core of proteins such that the 3 ° structure assembles around a fixed number of discrete metal-binding sites (Cate et al. 1997). Even in this structur e, however, the most buried of the metal-binding sites are significantly hydrated. It could be that all metal-ion-binding sites in RNA are at least partially hydrated. One can imagine several advantages to using hydrated ions within the ionic core of a large RNA. Hydrated ions would span larger voids than dehydrated ions and allow looser packing of secondary structure elements. The hydrated ion also can accommodate a wide range of structural interactions through its orientation of the water molecules as compared to direct coordination of metal ions at every site. In addition, the energy associated with deforming the outer-sphere interactions should be significantly less than what would be observed for distorting the innersphere coordination. A consequence of RNAs having a core of hydrated ions is that one might expect this core to be much more dynamic than the hydrophobic core of a protein. In the modern protein world, metal cofactors are associated with a variety of reaction types, including electron transfer, redox chemistry, and hydrolysis reactions. Trans esterification and hydrolytic activities, however, are the primary catalytic behaviors observed in ribozymes. Did these other catalytic activities not develop until the dawn of the protein world, or are there undiscovered natural catalytic RNAs that are the ancestors of the early redox enzymes? Through the use of in vitro selection experiments, the scope of RNA catalysis has been significantly broadened is almost certainly capable of catalyzing these other classes of reactions, but it is still unclear whether there are naturally occurring examples. Such an enzyme would likely use a metal ion cofactor other than Mg(II), so the search for RNA molecules that naturally use alternative ions is of significant interest. A recent selection experiment showed that a single base change results in an altered metal ion specific ity for RNase P (Frank and Pace 1997). It is clear from this result that catalytic RNAs retain the ability to adapt to an everchanging environment, using the resources available to evolve and to overcome evolutionary pressures. Were RNAs to have evolved out of an environment devoid of metal ions, they probably would have found a way around the problems of folding and generating reactive functional groups. The primordial soup and all cellular environments that have evolved subsequently contained a variety of ions, however. Given the availability of metal ions, they will certainly play a significant role in the biology of current and future RNAs. Effect of metal ions on the kinetics of tyrosine oxidation by Tyrosinase The conversion of tyrosine into dopa [3-(3,4-dihydroxyphenyl)alanine] is the rate limiting step in the biosynthesis of melanins catalysed by tyrosinase. This hydroxylation reaction is characterized by a lag period, the extent of which depends on various parameters, notably the presence of a suitable hydrogen donor such as dopa or tetrahydropterin. We have now found that catalytic amounts of Fe2+ ions have the same effect as dopa in stimulating the tyrosine hydroxylase activity of the enzyme. Kinetic experiments showed that the shortening of the induction time depends on the concentration of the added metal and the nature of the buffer system used and is not suppressed by superoxide dismutase, catalase, formate or mannitol. Notably, Fe3+ ions showed only a small delaying effect on tyrosinase activity. Among the other metals which were tested, Zn2+, Co2+, Cd2+ and Ni2+ had no detectable influence, whereas Cu2+ and Mn2+ exhibited a marked inhibitory effect on the kinetics of tyrosine ox idation. These findings are discussed in the light of the commonly accepted mechanism of action of tyrosinase. Tyrosinase (monophenol,dihydroxyphenylalanine oxygen oxidoreductase; is a copper-containing enzyme responsible for melanogenesis in plants and animals, which catalyses both hydroxylation of tyrosine to dopa and its subsequent oxidation to dopaquinone (Hearing et al., 1980; Lerch, 1981). The first reaction, which represents the rate-limiting step in melanin biosynthesis (Lerner et al., 1949), is characterized by a lag period that has subsequently been explained in terms of a hysteretic process of the enzyme (Garcia Carmona et al., 1980). The extent of this induction time depends on various parameters including, besides pH and both substrate and enzyme concentration, the presence of a suitable hydrogen donor. Kinetic studies carried out on tyrosinases from various sources (Pomerantz, 1966; Pomerantz Murthy, 1974; Hearing Ekel, 1976; Prota et al Abbreviations used: dopa, 3-(3,4-dihydroxyphenyl)-alanine; SOD, superoxide dismutase. To whom correspondence and reprint requests should be addressed. 1981) have shown that dopa, in very low concentration, is the most effective reducing agent in eliminating the lag period, whereas other catechols, such as dopamine, adrenaline and noradrenaline, behave similarly to ascorbate and NADH and NADPH in only shortening it, even at high concentration. Tetrahydropterin, a well-known specific cofactor of other aromatic hydroxylases (Lerner et al., 1977; Marota Shiman, 1984), is also effective in stimulating tyrosinase activity, although to a lesser extent than dopa. At present, no other organic or inorganic substances have been reported to shorten or lengthen the lag period of tyrosine oxidation. Although metal ions are known to play a role in many biologi cal processes, little attention has been directed to their possible involvement in melanogenesis, particularly in the early enzymic stages .As a part of our continuing studies on the chemistry of melanin pigmentation (Prota, 1980; Sealey et al., 1982; Palumbo et al., 1983), we report the results of a survey on the effect of metal ions on the activity of purified Sepia tyrosinase, readily available in large amounts from the ink of the cephalopod Sepia officinalis thermostability of amalyse Three Metal Ions Participate in the Reaction Catalyzed by T5 Flap Endonuclease*à ¢- ¡ Protein nucleases and RNA enzymes depend on divalent metal ions to catalyze the rapid hydrolysis of phosphate diester linkages of nucleic acids during DNA replication, DNA repair, RNA processing, and RNA degradation. These enzymes are widely proposed to catalyze phosphate diester hydrolysis using a two-metal-ion mechanism. Yet, analyses of flap endonuclease (FEN) family members, which occur in all domains of life and act in DNA replication and repair, exemplify controversies regarding the classical two-metal-ion mechanism for phosphate diester hydrolysis. Whereas substrate-free structures of FENs identify two active site metal ions, their typical separation of>4 AËÅ ¡ appears incompatible with this mechanism. To clarify the roles played by FEN metal ions, we report here a detailed evaluation of the magnesium ion response of T5FEN. Kinetic investigations reveal that overall the T5FEN-catalyzed reaction requires at least three magnesium ions, implying that an additional metal ion is bound. The presence of at least two ions bound with differing affinity is required to catalyze phosphate diester hydrolysis. Analysis of the inhibition of reactions by calcium ions is consistent with a requirement for two viable cofactors (Mg2_ or Mn2_). The apparent substrate association constant is maximized by binding two magnesium ions. This may reflect a metal dependent unpairing of duplex substrate required to position the scissile phosphate in contact with metal ion(s). The combined results suggest that T5FEN primarily uses a two-metal-ion mechanism for chemical catalysis, but that its overall metallobiochemistry is more complex and requires three ions. Key cellular processes such as DNA replication, DNA repair, RNA processing, and RNA degradation require the rapid hydrolysis of the phosphate diester linkages of nucleic acids. The uncatalyzed hydrolysis of phosphate diesters under biological conditions is an extremely slow process with an estimated half-life of 30 million years at 25  °C (1). Protein nucleases and RNA enzymes produce rate enhancements of 1015-1017 to allow this reaction to proceed on a biologically useful time scale. Most enzymes catalyzing phosphate diester bond hydrolysis have a requirement for divalent metal ions. Based largely upon crystallographic observations, most metallonucleases are proposed to catalyze reactions using a two-metal-ion mechanism (Fig. 1a) analogous to that suggested for the phosphate monoesterase alkaline phosphatase (2, 3), although this view is not universally accepted. Three recent reviews present contrasting views on the roles of metal ions in protein nuclease and RNA enzyme reactions and illustrate this controversy (4-6). One family of metallonucleases over which there has been considerable mechanistic debate are the flap endonucleases (FENs)3 (7-12), which are present in all domains of life and play a key role in DNA replication and repair. Unlike most metallonucleases, which typically possess a cluster of three or four active site carboxylates, the FEN active site is constructed from seven or eight acidic residues located in similar positions in FENs from a range of organisms (Fig. 1b, see also supplemental Fig. S1) (7, 9, 10, 13-16). Several FEN x-ray structures also contain two active site carboxylate-liganded divalent metal ions, designated as metals 1 and 2 (9, 13-15). The position of metal 1 is similar in all cases, but the metal 2 location varies. In all but on

The Boston Police Strike :: essays research papers

The Boston Police Strike In 1919, there was a general agreement that the Boston policemen had a great deal to complain about. They disliked their hours, working conditions and most importantly, their salary. After getting a raise in 1913, the policemen had asked for another raise in 1917 to compensate for the high wartime inflation. By the time the officers had finally received that raise, the buying power of that extra money had gone down so low that the policemen were still having problems making ends meet. Another point of struggle was the long hours the officers were forced to work, including a night in the station house each week and the special details. Lastly, the police force objected to the conditions that they were forced to work in. Men had to sleep in beds infested with all sorts of bugs and on the soiled sheets that were left over from the previous occupants. To voice their complaints, the policemen turned to the Boston Social Club, a fraternal organization founded by Police Commissioner Stephen O'Meara in 1906. On the other end of the negotiating table sat Police Commissioner Edwin U. Curtis. Although Curtis considered himself to be sympathetic to the policemen's demands, he refused to deal with the union. As the days went on, the situation grew tenser. On August 26 and 29, Curtis fired 19 workers for their union activity. This caused massive outrage among the workers and on Tuesday, September 9, the strike began with three-fourths of the force walking out. Realizing that the police force was gone, some of Boston's residents began to commit small crimes. This eventually escalated into massive riots that continued until 1:30 in the morning. The following day, the small fraction of the police force had much difficulty maintaining the order but by that night the National Guard was deployed and the violence slowly came to a stop over the following couple of days.

The Influence of Frank Lloyd Wright on Frank Gehry in the Design of his

Many of Frank Gehry’s early works reflect a refined manipulation of shapes and structures, whereby many of his buildings present distorted shapes or apparent structures. From the Guggenheim museum to the Walt Disney concert hall, Frank Gehry’s architecture is close to none. He cleverly plays with shapes and geometries. In this essay, I shall start with a brief analysis of Gehry’s house and the influences in the design of the house. I shall then analyze the extent to which Frank Lloyd Wright has inspired and influenced Gehry in the design of his house through a comparison with Frank Lloyd Wright’s Jacob’s house. Gehry draws his inspiration from famous paintings such as the Madonna and Child which he qualifies as a â€Å"strategy for architecture† (Friedman M. , 2003, p. 42) and which he used as an inspiration for a project in Mexico . Through his interpretation of the paintings and artwork, Gehry looked for a new kind of architecture. His search for a new type of architecture culminated in 1978 with his own house in Santa Monica. What was once a traditional Californian house would be redesigned to become one of the most important and revolutionary designs of the 20th century, giving Gehry international prestige and fame. Frank Gehry’s â€Å"Own House† uses a mixture of corrugated metal, plywood, chain link and asphalt to construct a new envelope for an existing typical Californian house. This house has been inspired by Joseph Cornell, Ed Moses and Bob Rauschenberg. Gehry comments on his house by saying that there was something â€Å"magical† (Friedman M. , 2003, p. 54) about it. He admits having â€Å"followed the end of his [my] nose† (Friedman M. , 2003, p. 54) when it came to constructing the â€Å"new† house, which led Arthur Drexler, former Director... ...nian architects. Frank Lloyd Wright, on the other hand is considered as one of the founders of modern architecture but what is certain is that they have both had a tremendous influence on the world of architecture today. Works Cited (2000, August-November 12). Retrieved December 15, 2010, from http://www.arcspace.com/gehry_new/index.html?main=/gehry_new/html/ar.html Carter, R. M. (2001). Frank Lloyd Wright. London: Phaidon Press Limited. Friedman, M. (2003). Architecture+ Process Gehry Talks. London: Thames and Hudson Ltd. Friedman, M. (2003). Gehry Talks. London: Thames and Hudson Ltd. Humphries, L. (1970). Programs and manifestoes on 20th-century architecture. Cambridge Massachusetts: Michael Bullock. Maddex, D. (2000). 50 Favourite houses by Frank Lloyd Wright. London: Thames and Hudson Ltd. Zevi, B. (1998). Frank Lloyd Wright. Boston: Birkhauser.

Statement of Educational Goals And Philosophy Essay -- My Philosophy o

Statement of Educational Goals And Philosophy The nature of students is that of an instinctive ability to learn. Students of ages and all grade levels reflect their surroundings and respond according to their interpretation. Naturally it is not only the influence of a classroom that shapes a student but many outside factors that determine students’ goals and abilities; for example, healthy encouragement from parents. Students may find a natural ability to perform in one area of education and with help may fine tune their ability to better their understanding of other areas. Students have a better understanding of education when it is relevant to their needs and everyday life. The nature of knowledge deals with two aspects: that of relative and absolute. From a relative perspective a student’s knowledge is determined by their perception of what surrounds them. Knowledge of any kind has the ability to inspire but if a student does not perceive that knowledge as worthy it may not become part of their educational formation. For instance, a student in art class may perceive different works of a good or bad based on their emotion reaction. On the other hand, the absolute knowledge of how a work of art is created may incorporate specific mathematics and color formulations that are not interpreted by emotion. The combining of relative and absolute knowledge is the result of having a dream and the knowledge to make it come true. Overall, the purpose of public education is to provide knowledge in a manner that all of society may communicate and function on a common level with the intent of raising the standards of future societies. With this purpose in mind, it is the goal to mold... ...nd emotional needs of students, incorporating as much as possible the various other academic subjects. My Education 305 class along with the observation that I completed has helped to bring the reality of students and the relationship of teacher-to-student into focus. Various strategies to maintain discipline within the classroom have been very helpful and given me a better knowledge of age appropriate rewards and punishments. It has also presented to me the most difficult task: motivation. It is not only the way that I see art but to see art through my students eyes and to develop their skill or lack of into something that they at least can appreciate. A teacher is not a magician but a teacher can use many tricks to keep students focused and motivated. Beginning with the first day until the last day it is my goal that every student learns something each day.

Propolis

Introduction : Propolis is a glue-like resinous material that collected and processed by the bees (honeybees) from various sources of flowers, leaves, and other plants. It is a heterogeneous mixture consist of many compounds which is taken and converted then utilized by bees in sealing their honeycombs holes, smoothing the internal parts of the combs, and providing protection to their residence against invaders. Recent studies which have been conducted on the propolis, showed that the propolis is a mixture of phenolic compounds (phenolic acid), polyphenols , flavonoids , Easters and various types of fatty acids, amino acids, alcohol, steroids, Caffeic acid, CAPE, quercitin , carbohydrates and many other substances that forms the propolis. Its composition may differ due to the difference of the source which is collected from. The differences in their chemical composition may affect the biological activities and may also cause some diversity although the properties are almost similar in all of it. Propolis has an interest according to its properties which make it unique. It might be used in therapeutic aspects such as anti-oxidant, anti-cancer, antiviral and antibacterial activities and also radioprotective properties. Propolis has anti-cancer or anti-tumor factors. It has been reported by many studies which noticed that propolis inhibits cancer cells growth and metastasis by stimulating the apoptosis and the immune system. Apoptosis is the mechanism of destroying and eliminating the Abnormal cells that includes cancer cells. This attribute may prevent the side effects caused by chemotherapy and radiotherapy. Chemotherapy and radiotherapy are used in the treating cancer but in the same time they damage other organs and may cause other diseases or undesired effects. The only disadvantage of natural anti-cancer is the rate of activity which is faster in chemo and radiotherapy . Also, it has Anti-oxidant activity due to the presence of flavonoids which inhibits the lipid peroxidation and the oxidation of LDL (low-density lipoprotein) and quercetin which is the most potent radical scavenger. Free radical scavengers may prevent the free radicals reactive species from being formed, or remove them before they can harmfully affect the components of the cell. In addition to these properties, it also has antibacterial, anti-allergic, anti-inflammatory, anti-aggregatory, anti-viral, anti-fungal and anti-bacterial effects that make propolis the focus of attention of many scientists. Cancer (malignant tumor) is an abnormal growth of cells due to either presence of mutation in DNA or inhibiting in the tumor suppressors ( one of the checkpoints on the cell cycle ) which leads to fast growth of cancer cells, invading the organs, and destroying the adjacent cells to get the nutrition. Cancer may occur in any part of the lungs and causes damage to the lung and may lead to death . Lung cancer may be hereditary or acquired by many factors, for example, smoking cigarettes, asbestos and breathing carcinogens chemicals. However, the main causes of other types of cancers are still unknown yet.

Education Programs for Gifted Students

Started in the 1970's, America's Gifted & Talented programs are used to enhance the curriculum of students included in either category in order to challenge and strengthen their unique abilities. These students are usually provided a separate class with specialized lessons in all areas and a teacher with a special degree in gifted education. I feel that it is important that the teacher was a gifted student who would know what the students must face as â€Å"above average† members of their school. The job market for gifted education offers a wide range of opportunity and gifted teachers are needed all over the country. One of the earliest programs for gifted and talented students was set up in 1974, at The Old Donation Center, in Virginia Beach. Students scoring within the top 3% of students on an assessment test are referred here to be further challenged. These students are considered gifted and have special teachers and classes to promote development of their talents and minds. Programs like this began to pop up around the nation in the 70's; however, gifted students were looked down upon by teachers,parents, and peers. Many people considered them to be â€Å"freaks† because they were different. They didn't understand the implications of the terms â€Å"gifted† and â€Å"talented†. Most people simply expected gifted students to act more mature or to be geniuses, even though gifted students are the same as other children in their needs as human beings. Some gifted students were forced to grow up too fast and some simply ignored the fact that they were smarter than others, thus, they were lost in the shuffle. The irony of it all is that gifted-ness seems to run in families and the children of these repressed gifted students are, themselves, gifted. But what exactly is a â€Å"gifted† student? Students (elementary & secondary) are given a repertoire of tests. These tests check IQ, psychomotor ability, specific academic aptitude/talent, creative and productive thinking, leadership ability, and skills in the visual and performing arts. The main requirement, the IQ, is tested by a standardized IQ test (remember, however, that IQ tests are not always perfectly accurate). Ratings are given to each bracket of IQ scores: If a student receives a rating of â€Å"gifted† or higher (130+), he/she is considered to be a gifted student and is introduced into the designated programs. These students are given the opportunity to choose classes that are meant to teach them how to use their minds for critical thinking, reasoning, and artistic pursuits. Students in these classes are also exposed to culture, literature, and other subject areas that are not usually covered in what they term â€Å"normal classes†. The gifted classes are mainly in an open format allowing the student to create the parameters of his/her work and allowing them to be creative in their learning experience. Each class is presided-over by a teacher that has specialized degrees in gifted education. Almost every school in the United States has a need for a gifted class, making job opportunities endless; there are never enough. Gifted teachers must have both a degree in education (secondary or elementary) and a degree in special education (gifted). These teachers are individuals that must have stamina, people skills, and open minds. It is also important (to the students) that the teacher himself/herself was also classified as gifted. It sets a common bond, shows them that the teacher understands the problems they face as so-called â€Å"smart kids†. These students are often ridiculed by their peers and looked-down upon by their teachers. They are often separated from others their age by a barrier that can only be described as their â€Å"intelligence†. This is why, often, gifted teachers have degrees in administration, counseling, or psychology. All teachers that I interviewed told me that a continually upgraded education is a must (as are additional degrees). In order to keep up with the students one must attend seminars, workshops, special classes, etc. There is no end to the amount of education that could help you to understand gifted students and the role of their â€Å"teacher†. Also, if a teacher has extra educational qualifications, he/she could be asked to step up to the position of administrator or, more often, counselor. This means pay raises. Though the average salary for teachers is approximately $27,500 per year, it is â€Å"a worthwhile undertaking† according to Jane Mansueto, â€Å"It is incredible to work with gifted students. They are incredible! † She went on to remark that it is fascinating to imagine that they are of the same level of intelligence as the teacher and what they must be feeling inside. She feels that the students are not bothered by what their peers think, but actually tend to understand that other's opinions mean little compared to their own. Mrs. Mansueto taught at Elm Grove Middle School for 5 years. She commented on her role as a gifted teacher to consist of â€Å"one part mentorship, one part hardship, and one part friendship†. When asked what kind of hours she keeps, she laughed and asked if she was supposed to have time off. According to Mrs. Mansueto, unlike a â€Å"normal† teacher, a gifted teacher has no books to go by or preset material to teach, or, for that matter, a preset subject to teach. They are given a blank page and, using input from students, must draw up lessons from every subject area and constantly challenge the inquisitive minds of the gifted. Jane Mansueto attended Trinity College where she majored in both elementary education and gifted education. Her favorite part of being a gifted teacher is being with the students, working hand in hand with them to plan and carry out projects and trips. Though the pay is average, and there is not much room to be promoted if you wish to remain in the classroom, gifted teaching has its personal rewards. Jeff Simpleton, a gifted teacher as well as a former gifted student, states, â€Å"I really think that by being gifted, I am in touch with what they have to go through. They know that I can understand. † Mr. Simpleton's class consists of 6 high school students, who have many problems due to the intelligence barrier and a kind of isolation that has built up over the years between themselves and their classmates. They seem to feel that they have a reputation that they must live up to. The students try to please everyone†¦ hey push themselves with sheer motivation and determination and drive. Mr. Simpleton feels that this is â€Å"what makes them so great†. He feels hat anyone with a sense of adventure and a need for something new day after day would find teaching a gifted class to be the perfect job for them. Gifted teachers are important to the development of their students minds. They are understanding individuals who must work hard to make the curriculum interesting and challenging. With the proper education it is possible to go far as a teacher of the gifted.